CONFIDENCE
Nothing underpins or undermines a team and individual’s performance more than confidence; a belief they can and will execute to their physical, technical and mental optimum. Almost everything that directs training and playing influences confidence levels. It’s a complex and multidimensional construct that can be influenced by various factors.
It’s crucial to not only understand each of these factors but also to illuminate them through practical examples where feasible, as follows.
Self-Efficacy
Bandura (1997) first explained the concept of self-efficacy as an individual's belief in their ability to successfully execute specific tasks. One’s sense of self-efficacy can provide the foundation for motivation, well-being, and personal accomplishment.
People’s beliefs in their efficacy are developed by four primary sources of influence, including (i) mastery experiences, (ii) vicarious experiences, (iii) social persuasion, and (iv) emotional states.
Athletes with high self-efficacy are more likely to approach challenges with confidence.
Exemplars
Skills - ensure a thorough skills battery analysis is done in pre-season and tailored drills are provided for the individual to practise on their own and with the group.
Fitness - again employing standardized testing will reveal individual strength and weaknesses. Use these to tailor prescriptive programs that will build strengths and address weaknesses so that the individual is in the best possible physical state to execute role-based skills and game play.
Positive feedback - use emotional and data-based approaches to recognise and praise performance, progress and application.
Past Performance and Experience
Positive past experiences and successful performances can enhance an athlete's confidence. Conversely, repeated failures or negative experiences may erode confidence.
Exemplars
Use storytelling preferably with an audiovisual knowledgebase so you can remind the individual of their proven ability to perform. This can be a powerful trigger for re-casting and reinforcing self-esteem. Have the group discuss their great moments and passion for their support in a casual, safe forum.
Preparation and Training
Adequate preparation and effective training programs contribute to athletes' confidence. Knowing that they have put in the work and are physically prepared can boost confidence levels. Standardized physical and skills testing shines an impartial light on this.
Exemplars
Coaching staff need to invest genuine effort to make it clear to the athletes that homework has been done by the coach and that the prescriptive programs to be implemented are well thought out, organised and evidence-based. Something that rarely occurs in hockey is ensuring periodised plans and introduced changes are both evidence-based and peer-reviewed. I have seen this neglected at national level; repeatedly.
Plans must be shared with communication being timely, concise and relevant. Athletes have to be confident that the work they are doing is best in class.
Goal Setting
Setting realistic and challenging goals is associated with increased confidence. Achieving short-term goals provides a sense of accomplishment, reinforcing confidence.
In hockey, individual goals should have some congruence with the team goals so that both can be satisfied.
In a recent investigation by Healy et.al, (2018) the usual Goal Setting Theory method adhered to fervently by high performance sports practitioners was called into question. The researchers argued that in comparison to business contexts, goals in sport may be more complex, with their success dependent on more than just the effort invested by the athlete. For example, the achievement of a goal can be impacted by interactions with teammates, opponents, coaches, and other important individuals (such as parents or peers). In addition, the mechanistic goal-setting–performance relationship which is often employed in research might limit the validity of the findings in the complex real world of competitive sport, as it can fail to account for the cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses which underpin successful sporting performance.
Maitland and Gervis (2010) showed that athletes found it hard to see how their short-term goals were related to progress toward their longer-term goals. Within this applied research there were also challenges identified which related to the coaches’ engagement in their athletes’ goal pursuits, demonstrating how coaches could impact the effectiveness and outcome of goal-setting programs both positively and negatively.
The same authors suggested that if coaches rely on simplistic goal-setting processes without considering the wider social motivational choices of players (such as why they choose to pursue specific goals), then the goal-setting practice may be ineffective. This reinforces the complex nature of goal setting, and suggests why factors such as motivation might need to be acknowledged.
Nicholls (2021) in a study of athlete goal attainment and stress found the way an athlete responded to an unattainable goal was associated with his or her well-being in the period leading up to and including the competition. Further, goal reengagement positively predicted well-being and unsurprisingly, goal disengagement negatively predicted well-being.
Goal reengagement was positively associated with challenge appraisals, which in turn was linked to task-oriented coping, and task-oriented coping positively associated with well-being.
When highly-valued goals become unattainable, psychologists and coaches should encourage athletes to:
Generate alternative approaches to achieve the same goal, or
Help athletes develop a completely new goal in order to promote well-being among athletes.
Goals are there to adapt to changing reality including attainability and relevance adjustments that come to the fore with injuries, success, failures in the day to day sporting life fo the athlete.
Exemplars
Goals for hockey players need to be explicit, shared, attainable and adaptive. They must consider the level of self-determination of the individual and the team environment which includes the nature and extent of autonomy support proffered by coaching staff.
Individual goals should have some alignment with team goals and coaching staff need to consider these in reviewing not only the goals themselves but processes and methods employed to assist goal realization.
Throughout a season or the programmed association goals may become unattainable. Any reset of these goals should be done in a positive, supportive manner with learning from the initial goal shortfall honestly shared and acted upon.
Mental Toughness
Mental toughness involves the ability to maintain focus, determination, and resilience in the face of adversity. Athletes with high levels of mental toughness often exhibit greater confidence.
It is associated with increased stress resilience, successful stress management, and psychological well-being. Gerber et.al, (2012) affirmed that mental toughness is composed of subscales of challenge (associated with performing well in challenging situations), commitment (not giving up under pressure), life, emotional control (perceived high control over the outcomes of one’s performance), confidence in abilities, and interpersonal confidence (associated with unshakable belief in abilities).
Exemplars
Coaching staff need to ensure that training comprises a majority of game-based tasks that enable these attributes to be tested, honed and sustained in the best possible simulacrum. In selecting preparatory pre-season games it’s vital to consider the nature and quality of opposition, to ensure targeted structures, systems and processes are understood and applied in game situations. As we progressively load physical conditioning so too should we ensure progressive levels of opposition in evolving the group’s mental toughness. Mental toughness is a cumulative trait and takes time to develop. The culture of the team should be as optimally supportive as possible to nurture the process of elevating mental toughness.
Social Support
Athletes who perceive strong support from coaches, teammates, and family members are likely to have higher levels of confidence. Positive feedback and encouragement play crucial roles.
Katagami & Tsuchiya (2016) in a study of Japanese student athletes found that received support is a positive predictor of athletes’ psychological well-being. Freeman et.al (2014) discovered the strong association between received support of athletes and their self-confidence.
Exemplars
Encourage family and friends to be active participants in team and club support activities via open communication channels and collaborative events.
Make judicious use of appropriate social media conduits that facilitate group communication.
Personality Traits
Certain personality traits, such as optimism and a positive mindset, are linked to higher levels of confidence in athletes. Individuals with a strong belief in their abilities are more likely to approach challenges with confidence.
Exemplar
Some high performance organisations provide thorough personality and psychological testing of elite athletes to better enable individually targeted training and support that aligns with personality traits.
Coach-athlete Relationship
The quality of the relationship between coaches and athletes can impact confidence. Supportive, communicative, and encouraging coaching styles are associated with higher athlete confidence.
It's important to note that the coach-athlete relationship is dynamic and multifaceted, and individual differences among athletes may lead to varying responses to coaching styles. Overall, research underscores the influential role coaches play in shaping athlete confidence, emphasizing the importance of positive and supportive coaching practices for optimal athlete development.
Research suggests that coaches who provide athletes with a sense of autonomy and involve them in decision-making processes can enhance confidence. Athletes who feel a sense of control over their training and competition are likely to be more confident.
A positive and mastery-oriented climate, emphasizing effort and improvement, is associated with higher confidence levels.
Coaches who incorporate mental skills training, such as visualization, goal-setting, and positive self-talk, into their coaching programs can contribute to the development of mental toughness and increased confidence in athletes.
Exemplars
There is a hell of a lot to being a good coach who positively affects the wellbeing of others. Our advice to organisations; try to employ those with formal Sports Coaching degrees not just ex-players as these programs tick many of the boxes explored in this post around the bio-psycho-social-technical aspects of producing confident athletes. Graduates are well rounded and knowledgeable.
Fairness and Equality
Research highlights the importance of fairness and equality in coaching practices. Athletes who perceive fairness in team selection, playing time, and treatment by coaches are likely to have higher confidence levels.
Comment
I have never, ever in my broad multiple sport career as athlete and coach witnessed such flagrant cronyism and nepotism as I see in Masters hockey in general and national selections in particular. Lack of impartiality, fairness and technical incompetence seem common bedfellows in this sport at Masters level. This will be the topic of an upcoming podcast.
Exemplar
Use dispassionate performance data to help explain selection decisions, adding context e.g. opponent(s). Make use of excellent shared performance analysis platforms like CoachLogic so players can own improvement areas and have a context for selection decisions.
Communicate openly, honestly and positively to athletes and make sure it is a 2-way dialogue as they have a right to communicate to you and your staff similarly.
Role Modeling
Coaches serve as role models for athletes. Coaches who exhibit confidence, resilience, and a positive attitude can inspire and influence athletes' own confidence levels.
Exemplar
Believe in what you are doing and how you are going about it. Do what nowhere enough hockey coaches do - seek mentoring, improvement and peer support. You are one of a number of role models so do not get carried away with yourself. Work with other important role models in the athlete’s life, take a team appoach.
Cognitive Strategies
Cognitive-behavioral strategies, such as positive self-talk, visualization, and mindfulness, can contribute to increased confidence by managing negative thoughts and anxiety.
Feedback and Evaluation
Constructive and specific feedback, along with fair performance evaluations, can positively influence athletes' confidence by providing them with a clear understanding of their strengths and areas for improvement. Studies completed by Beattie et.al, (2016) discovered with minimal performance feedback, athlete self-efficacy was negatively related to subsequent performance; yet when provided with more detailed feedback, self-efficacy was positively related to subsequent performance for the same athletes.
Coaching Style
The motivational climate created by the coach within the team environment can influence athlete confidence. A positive and mastery-oriented climate, emphasizing effort and improvement, is associated with higher confidence levels.
Emotional Support
Coaches who provide emotional support during both success and failure contribute to athletes' overall well-being and confidence. Supportive coaches can help athletes navigate challenges and maintain confidence during difficult times.
Understanding Individual Differences
Recognizing and understanding the individual differences among athletes is crucial. Tailoring coaching approaches to match individual needs and personalities can positively impact confidence.
Fairness
This is a tough area. Practicing full disclosure is a non negotiable including pre-existing biases from past experiences. Research highlights the importance of fairness and equality in coaching practices. Athletes who perceive fairness in team selection, playing time, and treatment by coaches are likely to have higher confidence levels.
Exemplars
Again, make use of formal standardized assessments, game analysis software and eliminating cronies from the selector’s panel. As a coach you should actively seek independent views on the team and its personnel from a performance perspective.
Try and keep a record of player rotations across the season and make this data transparent.
Crisis Management
How coaches handle crises, setbacks, and adversity can impact athlete confidence. Coaches who effectively manage challenging situations and provide guidance during difficult times contribute to the resilience and confidence of their athletes.
Long-Term Development
Coaches who prioritize the long-term development and well-being of athletes over short-term success are associated with higher athlete confidence. This perspective fosters a supportive and growth-oriented environment.
It's important to note that the coach-athlete relationship is dynamic and multifaceted, and individual differences among athletes may lead to varying responses to coaching styles. Overall, research underscores the influential role coaches play in shaping athlete confidence, emphasizing the importance of positive and supportive coaching practices for optimal athlete development.
References
Bandura, Albert. 1977. “Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change.” Psychological Review 84 (2): 191–215.
Beattie, Stuart, Tim Woodman, Mohammed Fakehy, and Chelsey Dempsey. 2016. “The Role of Performance Feedback on the Self-Efficacy–performance Relationship.” Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology 5 (1): 1–13.
Gerber, Markus, Simon Best, Fabienne Meerstetter, Marco Walter, Sebastian Ludyga, Serge Brand, Renzo Bianchi, Daniel J. Madigan, Sandrine Isoard-Gautheur, and Henrik Gustafsson. 2018. “Effects of Stress and Mental Toughness on Burnout and Depressive Symptoms: A Prospective Study with Young Elite Athletes.” Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport / Sports Medicine Australia 21 (12): 1200–1205.
Katagami, Eriko, and Hironobu Tsuchiya. 2016. “Effects of Social Support on Athletes’ Psychological Well-Being: The Correlations among Received Support, Perceived Support, and Personality.” Psychology 07 (13): 1741–52.
Lochbaum, Marc, Mackenzie Sherburn, Cassandra Sisneros, Sydney Cooper, Andrew M. Lane, and Peter C. Terry. 2022. “Revisiting the Self-Confidence and Sport Performance Relationship: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19 (11). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116381.
Nicholls, A.R. (2021). Psychology in Sports Coaching: Theory and Practice (3rd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003201441
Rintaugu, Elijah, Francis Mwangi, Nancy Andanje, Xiaojie Tian, Noriyuki Fuku, and Tetsuhiro Kidokoro. 2022. “Mental Toughness Characteristics of Male University Athletes in Relation To Contextual Factors.” Journal of Human Kinetics 81 (January): 243–51.
Thomas, Owen, and Sam N. Thrower. 2022. “Developing and Maintaining Sport-Confidence: Learning from Elite Athletes.” Frontiers for Young Minds 10 (July). https://doi.org/10.3389/frym.2022.675054.
