Elite athletes dedicate a significant portion of their lives to training, competing, and striving for excellence in their respective sports. This represents a substantive sunk cost and prohibitive opportunity cost outlay of time, effort and lost earnings. However, not all athletes achieve their ultimate goals, and many face non-selection or rejection at various stages of their careers, including epoch events such as major championships. These experiences can have profound mental health implications, impacting athletes' psychological well-being and overall mental health. Until recently, triggered by sad and profound loss of athlete lives to change direction, policy and resourcing, many peak sporting bodies have sacrificed athlete wellbeing for performance outcomes. Let’s get to grips with the psychosocial elements of rejection and step through an evidence-based approach to improve selection processes and support frameworks .

Psychosocial Frameworks of Rejection

Stress and Coping Theory

The Stress and Coping Theory, developed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984), posits that individuals experience stress when they perceive a discrepancy between the demands placed upon them and their ability to meet those demands. For elite athletes, non-selection or rejection can be a significant stressor, leading to feelings of failure and inadequacy. Yet, in many instances, selectors and coaches remain untouched by review processes and the rationale they have used to make decisions remain opaque to the athlete. Coping mechanisms play a crucial role in determining the psychological outcomes of these rejection experiences. Maladaptive coping strategies, such as denial or substance abuse, can exacerbate mental health issues, while adaptive strategies, like seeking social support and engaging in positive self-reflection, can mitigate these risks. Another coping ( or avoidance? ) strategy is the use of third party adjudication such as tribunals to provide insights into the selection rationale and bring to bear a dispassionate legal process to ascertaining the fairness or otherwise of a selection decision. This does however prolong the stress peaks for all concerned.

Self-Determination Theory

Self-Determination Theory (SDT), developed by Deci and Ryan (1985), emphasizes the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in fostering psychological well-being. Non-selection or rejection can undermine an athlete's sense of competence and autonomy, leading to decreased motivation and feelings of helplessness. When athletes feel unsupported or disconnected from their team or coaches, their sense of relatedness is also compromised, further impacting their mental health. Research has shown that fostering an environment that supports these three psychological needs can buffer against the negative effects of non-selection and rejection. In cases where coaches adopt a dated “stand and deliver; comply or else approach” which feigns openness but effectively disempowers the voice of the individual athlete in a selection rejection will be consistent with the coach-selector ignoring the need for autonomy

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

Cognitive Appraisal Theory, also proposed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984), suggests that the way individuals appraise or interpret a stressful event determines their emotional and behavioral responses. Athletes who perceive non-selection or rejection as a personal failure are more likely to experience negative emotions such as depression and anxiety. In contrast, those who view these experiences as opportunities for growth and learning may exhibit greater resilience. Interventions that help athletes reframe their appraisals can therefore be beneficial in mitigating adverse mental health outcomes.

Adverse Effects of Rejection from Poor Selection Processes

Let’s take an apex example. If you are a player at national level on a government-supported (minimalist of course) and funded elite athlete pathway and you have endured an Olympic preparation cycle of 4 years whilst operating in an environment where, through fear of missing out ( with its roots in the affect nature of social hunger for connetedness) you have complied with a coach-induced culture of compliance, often against your better judgement. Prior to an Olympic selection announcement you and a few others are told of your non-selection; the process for each player different and the process opaque. At the heart of the judgement is quite clearly a clash of personality, a tendency for you to tend toward the creative and instinctive problem solving that is more succesful than the systems and structures insisted upon by the dogma of the coach. Now you know you are not going; how do you feel? What do you do next?

Depression

Research indicates that athletes who experience non-selection or rejection are at an increased risk of developing depressive symptoms. A study by Schaal et al. (2011) found that 34% of elite athletes reported experiencing depressive episodes, with a significant proportion attributing these episodes to career-related stressors such as non-selection.

Anxiety

Anxiety is another common mental health issue among elite athletes facing non-selection or rejection. A study by Rice et al. (2016) found that athletes experiencing career-related stressors, including non-selection, reported higher levels of anxiety compared to those who did not face such stressors. This anxiety can manifest as performance anxiety, social anxiety, or generalized anxiety disorder.

Identity Crisis

For many elite athletes, their identity is closely tied to their sport. Non-selection or rejection can lead to an identity crisis, where athletes struggle to redefine themselves outside of their athletic achievements. This can result in a loss of self-esteem and a diminished sense of purpose, contributing to mental health issues such as depression and anxiety.

Substance Abuse

In an attempt to cope with the emotional distress associated with non-selection or rejection, some athletes may turn to substance abuse. A study by Ford (2007) found that athletes who experienced significant career setbacks were more likely to engage in alcohol and drug use as a coping mechanism.

strategies and approaches to help with rejection

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

A well-established psychological treatment that focuses on changing unhelpful cognitive distortions and behaviors, improving emotional regulation, and developing personal coping strategies.

Application

• Cognitive Restructuring- helps athletes identify and challenge negative thoughts about rejection.

• Behavioral Activation- to encourage participation in enjoyable and meaningful activities to counteract depression and anxiety.

• Skill Training - Teach relaxation techniques and stress management skills.

Evidence

Research shows that CBT is effective in reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety in athletes (Donohue et al., 2018).

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)

These focus on increasing awareness and acceptance of the present moment and using values-based actions to enhance psychological flexibility.

Application

• Mindfulness Training- helps athletes stay present and reduce rumination on past failures.

• Acceptance Techniques- encourages athletes to accept difficult emotions rather than avoiding them.

• Values Clarification- assists athletes in identifying their core values and aligning their actions accordingly.

Evidence

Studies indicate that mindfulness and acceptance-based interventions reduce stress and enhance well-being among athletes (Gross et al., 2018)

Social support

This involves providing emotional, informational, and practical assistance through a network of friends, family, coaches, and peers.

Application

• Peer Support Programs - connect athletes with mentors who have experienced similar challenges.

• Team Building Activities - foster a sense of community and belonging within the team itself and broader organisation.

• Counseling Services - offer access to mental health professionals for individual or group therapy.

Evidence

Research demonstrates that strong social support networks are associated with better mental health outcomes in athletes (Freeman & Rees, 2010).

Resilience training

This focuses on developing the capacity to recover from setbacks and adapt positively to adversity.

Application

• Psychoeducation - Teach athletes about the nature of resilience and how it can be developed.

• Skill Development - Enhance problem-solving, emotional regulation, and self-efficacy.

• Exposure to Challenges - Gradually expose athletes to challenging situations to build resilience such as exclusion in minor tournaments or events.

Evidence

Programs like the Penn Resilience Program have been shown to increase resilience and reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety in various populations, including athletes (Seligman et al., 2009).

Career Transition and Life Skills Programs

These programs aim to prepare athletes for life beyond sports, helping them develop skills and plan for future careers.

Application

• Career Counseling - Provide guidance on career options and educational opportunities.

• Life Skills Workshops - Teach financial management, communication, and time management skills.

• Networking Opportunities - Connecting athletes with professionals and organizations for career development.

Evidence

Studies suggest that career transition programs improve psychological well-being and reduce anxiety about the future, in athletes (Park et al., 2013).

ADOPT a STOIC OUTLOOK

Stoicism teaches that while we can’t control everything that happens to us, we can control our reactions to those events. By focusing on internal virtues and accepting the natural order of things, we can achieve eudaimonia, or a state of flourishing.

Three central tenets are particularly relevant to athletes:

1. Dichotomy of Control
   
   Understand what is within our control (our actions, beliefs, feelings) and what is not (other people’s actions, external events).

2. Rationality Over Emotion
   
   Emotions, when left unchecked, can be volatile and destructive. Stoicism emphasizes the cultivation of reason to guide actions and reactions. This does mean suppression of emotional response but more about experience the response and ease out of it without becoming stuck in it.

3. Viewing Challenges as Opportunities
   
   Adversities aren’t necessarily bad. Instead, they can be chances to practice virtue and grow stronger. If the coaching capability is such you are provided with polite, construcive fedback and objective skills and knowledge to improve upon seize the opportunity.

Stoicism encourages a reframing of a crictial events such as non-selection.

Consider an injury, often seen as a setback, but through the lens of Stoicism, it becomes a chance to exhibit resilience. Athletes can use this time to focus on recovery, mental strength, or even exploring other aspects of their game that wouldn’t normally receive as much attention.

Coaches and Selectors

We will address the matter of coach selection and education in a future post.

Elite athletes facing selection rejection can experience significant mental health challenges. Implementing evidence-based mental health strategies and frameworks, such as CBT, mindfulness and acceptance-based interventions, social support, resilience training, and career transition programs, can provide crucial support and improve their psychological well-being. By addressing the unique needs of these athletes, we can help them navigate the emotional complexities of rejection and build a foundation for long-term mental health.

References

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. Springer Science & Business Media.

Donohue, B., Gavrilova, Y., Galante, M., Loughran, T., Burnhart, M., & Allen, D. N. (2018). Controlled evaluation of an optimization approach to mental health and sport performance. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 12(2), 234-260.

Ford, J. A. (2007). Substance use among college athletes: A comparison based on sport/team affiliation. Journal of American College Health, 55(6), 367-373.

Freeman, P., & Rees, T. (2010). Perceived social support from teammates: Direct and stress-buffering effects on self-confidence. European Journal of Sport Science, 10(1), 59-67.

Gross, M., Moore, Z. E., & Gardner, F. L. (2018). Effects of mindfulness training on mental toughness in elite soccer players: A preliminary study. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 12(1), 38-52.

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. Springer Publishing Company.

Park, S., Lavallee, D., & Tod, D. (2013). Athletes' career transition out of sport: A systematic review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(1), 22-53.

Rice, S. M., Purcell, R., De Silva, S., Mawren, D., McGorry, P. D., & Parker, A. G. (2016). The mental health of elite athletes: a narrative systematic review. Sports Medicine, 46(9), 1333-1353.

Schaal, K., Tafflet, M., Nassif, H., Thibault, V., Pichard, C., Alcotte, M., ... & Toussaint, J. F. (2011). Psychological balance in high level athletes: Gender-based differences and sport-specific patterns. PLoS One, 6(5), e19007.

Seligman, M. E. P., Ernst, R. M., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., & Linkins, M. (2009). Positive education: Positive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35(3), 293-311.